Fulford and Stamford Bridge: The Northern Battles of 1066
The Battle of Hastings, fought in 1066 between King Harold of England and Duke William of Normandy, is one of the most famous battles in history. But two other major battles had already been fought on English soil earlier that year. At Fulford and Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire, English armies had confronted an invading force led by the formidable Harald Sigurdson, King of Norway, better known today as Harald Hardrada.
Although every bit as bloody as the Battle of Hastings, these northern battles are sometimes treated as sideshows to it. In fact, Hardrada’s invasion was a serious threat to Harold II’s rule, and the English king’s response was one of the great military feats of the age.
Who was Harald Hardrada?
Harald of Norway was one of the most renowned and feared warrior kings of the 11th century. He was born around 1015 and was a half-brother of the then King of Norway, Olaf Haraldson. When he was 15 years old he was forced into exile following the conquest of Norway by Cnut the Great, King of England (1016–35) and Denmark (1018–35).
Journeying east, Harald spent time at the court of King Yaroslav of Russia, before moving on to Constantinople. There he served the Byzantine Emperor as a mercenary in campaigns in Sicily and Bulgaria. It was here that he honed his military prowess, serving in the imperial Varangian Guard, a group of elite soldiers of Scandinavian origin. By the time he returned to Norway in 1045, he had also amassed great riches.
By then Harald’s nephew, Magnus Olafson, had been King of Norway for a decade, and was at war with King Swein Estrithson of Denmark. Initially Harald fought for Swein but Magnus won the support of his uncle, and some of his wealth, by agreeing to share half his kingdom with him. When Magnus died two years later, Harald became sole ruler of Norway.
By all accounts, Harald’s rule was brutal, characterised by violent suppression of dissent and elimination of opponents. For much of his reign he waged war against King Swein of Denmark.
A German monk looking back from the 1070s described Harald’s wildness as surpassing that of previous tyrants and dubbed him ‘the thunderbolt of the north’ for waging ceaseless war. Later Norse sagas gave Harald his more familiar epithet – Hardrada, or ‘hard-ruler’.
Claimant or opportunist?
Unlike William of Normandy’s supporters, Harald Hardrada’s contemporaries didn’t leave any written justification for his invasion of England. Later Norse sagas say his claim to the English throne rested on the division of the North Sea empire created by Cnut the Great.
As well as inheriting the kingdom of Denmark, Cnut had won the crowns of England and Norway through war and conquest. At his death in 1035, Denmark and eventually England passed to his son Harthacnut, and Norway to Magnus Olafson.
Later accounts claimed that Harthacnut and Magnus agreed to be each other’s heir should one of them die. When Harthacnut died in 1042, Magnus soon assumed the throne of Denmark and threatened to invade England, where Edward the Confessor had succeeded his childless half-brother Harthacnut. So when Hardrada succeeded Magnus as sole king of Norway in 1047, he inherited the alleged claim to Denmark and, by extension, that of the English Crown.
No contemporary record survives to confirm the existence of Magnus and Harthacnut’s agreement. Nor is there any evidence to suggest that Hardrada had any intention of intervening in English affairs before 1066. But by that year his war with Swein of Denmark was over, and his personal wealth depleted.
England had seen a rebellion in the north in 1065, and now faced a succession crisis after the death of the childless Edward. It presented an alluring opportunity for the veteran Viking warrior to win further valour, riches and, perhaps, another kingdom.
Tostig Godwineson
Hardrada had an insider with expert knowledge of English affairs and politics to advise and support him: Tostig Godwineson, younger brother of Harold II.
The northern rebellion of 1065 was a reaction to Tostig’s heavy-handed rule as Earl of Northumbria. Forced into exile, and blaming his brother Harold for his fall, Tostig made his way to Scotland and made contact with Hardrada. According to the Norse and Icelandic sagas, Tostig persuaded Hardrada to invade England not just by alluding to his right to the throne, but also by claiming that the leading English nobles would support him.
The sagas were written down over a century later, so their reliability is questionable. But they may reflect an expectation by Hardrada that the north of England might welcome his arrival. Scandinavians had ruled over the region in the previous century: it had seen extensive Danish and Norwegian settlement, and retained a distinctive Anglo-Scandinavian cultural identity.
Harald made ready to invade England in the summer of 1066.
Invasion
The sagas say that Harald crossed the North Sea and assembled his forces on Orkney – an island group 10 miles north of the Scottish mainland – before sailing down the east coasts of Scotland and England, raiding Cleveland and Scarborough. There he met and defeated local resistance. Two versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle state that Hardrada had a fleet of 300 ships.
By this stage Tostig had sworn allegiance to Hardrada and joined him, adding 12 more ships. Together they sailed into the river Humber and proceeded westwards along the river Ouse towards York.
According to the 12th-century chronicler John of Worcester, the fleet landed at Ricall, just before a bend in the Ouse and about 10 miles south of York. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that the fleet sailed on to York, as does a contemporary of John’s called Gaimar.
As they approached the city, an English army confronted them.
The Battle of Fulford
As soon as Hardrada’s invasion fleet had been spotted, local defence measures were triggered and word was sent to King Harold in London. Eadwine and Morcar, the Earls of Mercia and Northumbria, summoned an army from seven counties, which took up position just south of York, at or near Fulford. Their intention was to stop the Norwegian advance before Hardrada had a chance to take the city. The two armies met on Wednesday 20 September.
Our understanding of how the battle played out relies on terse descriptions in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, expanded by John of Worcester, and on heroic legendary accounts in the later Norse and Icelandic sagas. So we can be certain of little beyond the general picture of what occurred.
The battle was fought on land between the bank of the Ouse and marshy ground. As the English approached, Hardrada gave the order for his army to advance, led by his banner ‘Land Waster’. Initial success fell to the English: they killed many of their opponents before momentum swung to Hardrada’s men, who pushed the English back.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that many of the English were killed, drowned or put to flight. A later Norse saga noted that the English dead were piled in such numbers that the Norwegians could walk across the marsh without wetting their feet.
Hardrada takes York
Following his victory Hardrada entered York – an event which must have been particularly satisfying for Tostig, following his exile the year before. The city seems to have collaborated to some extent with Hardrada, though whether this reflected genuine support or pragmatism is unclear. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells us he took 150 hostages from the city and was given provisions, with no indication of any plundering. John of Worcester records an exchange of hostages, implying negotiation, while the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says peace was agreed on the basis that all should accompany Hardrada south to win the land.
It was also agreed that he would receive more hostages at a crossing over the river Derwent called Stamford Bridge, about 7 miles east of York.
None of the Norwegians at York knew that King Harold of England was approaching. He had learned the news of Hardrada’s invasion while in London on or soon after 10 September. Riding day and night, we are told, he gathered an army as he moved northwards, and met his ships at Tadcaster (south of York, on the river Wharfe) on 24 September.
In less than a fortnight, Harold had travelled over 175 miles and amassed his forces. He was ready to strike. On the morning of Monday 25 September he made his way through York and then on to Stamford Bridge, where he fell upon the unsuspecting Hardrada.
The Battle of Stamford Bridge
As with the Battle of Fulford, what we know about the Battle of Stamford Bridge is constrained. The earliest accounts say little about the fighting, while later descriptions have potentially misleading legendary elements. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is our earliest source, while Snorri Sturluson’s saga, the Heimskringla, is one of the most colourful and detailed later descriptions. Snorri was writing in the 1220s but drew on and incorporated earlier verse accounts.
Harold had to march from Tadcaster, through York, and on to Stamford Bridge – a journey of about 18 miles. So the two armies must have met at least several hours after dawn.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that the English caught the Norwegians by surprise beyond the bridge crossing the Derwent and there joined battle. Snorri tells us that Hardrada had divided his men, leaving some with his ships while he moved on to Stamford Bridge. He also says that the Norwegians were not wearing their mail armour on account of the hot weather. Snorri presents a picture of a relaxed and diminished force, unprepared for the battle to come.
Snorri also provides a vivid account of supposed negotiations preceding the battle. He says Harold offered his brother Tostig one-third of his kingdom if he joined him, and when Tostig asked what Hardrada was to be offered he was told that the Norwegian king would receive sufficient ground for his burial – 7 feet or more of earth on account of his great height. Sadly, if the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is right about the surprise element, this exchange is unlikely to have happened.
In the early 12th century a legend prevailed that a single Norwegian warrior held up the English crossing of the bridge, killing many who approached him. According to one account, an Englishman crept under the bridge and killed him with a spear struck through the wooden boards. However, the story of this solo Norwegian effort runs against the grain of the earlier account of Hardrada being surprised beyond the bridge.
All accounts agree that the battle was hard-fought, with the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle saying it continued until late in the day. Snorri records that Hardrada’s followers preferred death to surrender. Writing in the early 12th century, the chronicler Orderic Vitalis noted:
Travellers cannot fail to recognise the field, for a great mountain of dead men’s bones still lies there and bears witness to the terrible slaughter on both sides.
By the battle’s end, King Harold of England had won a great victory. Hardrada was dead – killed by a wound to the throat from either a spear or an arrow. Tostig was killed too. His bloodied body could only be identified later by a wart between the shoulder blades, before his burial in York.
Aftermath
King Harold’s victory over Hardrada was absolute. He had killed his rival and obliterated the invading Norwegian army. Of the 300 ships which had brought Hardrada’s force across the North Sea, only 20 were needed to ferry the survivors home. Among them was Hardrada’s son Olaf, whom Harold magnanimously spared.
In its own terms, the Battle of Stamford Bridge ranks as one of the great military feats of Anglo-Saxon England. Harold had marched swiftly almost the length of his kingdom to annihilate an invading Viking army.
But victory had not been easily won. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle notes that numberless men, on both sides, had been killed. The fallen probably included housecarls, who formed the expert core of King Harold’s army.
And it was while the king and his depleted retinue were assessing the prizes gained and costs inflicted at Stamford Bridge that the news came of William of Normandy’s landing in Sussex.
It is one of the potent accidents of English history that King Harold’s need to defeat Hardrada placed him at the opposite end of the country from William’s invading force. Displaying the same fortitude and decisiveness that had spurred him north, Harold now began the journey south to confront William.
Historians still debate how much impact his hard-fought victory over Hardrada had on his final, catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Hastings.
By Roy Porter, Senior Curator of Properties, English Heritage
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